accuracy doubt cognition: core competencies of both sides of news transmission in the digital age
2024-10-05
한어Русский языкEnglishFrançaisIndonesianSanskrit日本語DeutschPortuguêsΕλληνικάespañolItalianoSuomalainenLatina
author:chang lixuan (associate professor of communication major at guangzhou xinhua university); nie jinghong (corresponding author, professor and doctoral supervisor at the school of journalism and communication, sun yat-sen university)
source:"young reporter" issue 9, 2024
introduction:
this article discusses the need to move from "general doubts" to accuracy doubts; and proposes methods for accuracy doubts in the digital age from three perspectives: the communicator, the audience, and the sharing of information by both parties: the communicator must persist and innovate, and the audience must pay attention to the accuracy of the information. source, evidence, openness and education, both transmitters and receivers share the "hurtt six points".
1. introduction
currently, journalism is going through a crisis.
for communicators, fewer (and increasingly overworked) reporters have in-depth knowledge of the areas they cover, and existing journalistic immune systems are increasingly unable to withstand the forces of “slant and deception” [1] . the economic crisis facing many professional media organizations has not only weakened their ability to "do public justice" but also put them under greater pressure to serve more commercial needs. there is widespread concern that in the process of commercialization of digital information, the economic pressure on individual journalists will further weaken their professionalism [2]. for audiences, the boundaries between news, opinions, entertainment and other types of media content are becoming increasingly blurred, phenomena such as "post-truth", "echo chambers" and "confirmation bias" are rampant, and artificial intelligence also has a tendency to fabricate information[3] [4]. the "2023 digital news report" shows that a global average of 56% (an increase of 2 percentage points from 2022) said that they are worried that it is difficult to distinguish true from false information on the internet, and this phenomenon is more prevalent among people who use social media as their main source of news. the performance is even worse, accounting for 64%[5]. educational scholars are concerned that many young people lack the ability to analyze media information [6].
in this environment, improving the literacy of both news transmitters and receivers has become an urgent problem that needs to be solved around the world in the digital age. the cyberspace administration of china jointly held a meeting with 24 departments including the ministry of education and the ministry of human resources to emphasize the need to solidly advance the "action outline to improve national digital literacy and skills" and promote the in-depth development of national digital literacy and skills improvement actions [7]. news individuals in the digital age are active "producers + consumers", that is, the news transmitters and receivers are often integrated. everyone will no longer get news from a single source, but will have their own "solution". in this set of "solutions", people can obtain news content from different sources, criticize, evaluate, find alternative strategies and create news context of its own.
so, how to build this “program” that we usually call “news literacy”? this article believes that skeptical cognition oriented by doubts about accuracy is very important for cultivating the literacy of both news transmitters and receivers in the digital era, and it can be called the core of news literacy. the "accuracy doubt" here emphasizes the motivation to verify the accuracy of facts or information. the opposite of accuracy doubt is identity doubt; skeptical cognition refers to a good skeptical attitude or spirit, "an openness" "style empirical thinking method" [8]; and the news literacy mentioned in this article specifically refers to the skills of how to "collect, write" and "read" news reports, mainly involving two aspects: the professional quality of the news messenger and the personal quality of the news audience.
2. why accuracy and doubt cognition are needed
carefully examine the journalistic professional norms of countries, institutions, and chinese and foreign media. truthfulness, accuracy, objectivity, fairness, responsibility, fairness, etc. are almost the consensus of media people all over the world. all journalistic professional skills are also based on these almost truth-like principles. expand; but further thinking about the spiritual essence behind these principles or skills, we will find two words - doubt. truth is doubt about falsehood, accuracy is doubt about details, objectivity is doubt about subjectivity... in essence, a journalist is a persistent believer with a good spirit of skepticism; skeptical cognition can be said to be the most basic thing for journalists one of the professional principles, "they are always observing and thinking, unwilling to be blinded by appearances and illusions, unwilling to be fooled by fallacies that appear to be authority and truth, and their eyes are filled with question marks" [9]. some scholars admit that if the principle of journalistic objectivity has many shortcomings, then the more simple, humble and old-fashioned skeptical cognition can be a good substitute [10].
comrade mao zedong once asked communists to "ask a reason for everything, think carefully about it, and think about whether it is realistic and reasonable. you should never blindly follow it, and you should never promote slavery." [ 11]. comrade liu shaoqi also encouraged journalists to be skeptical. he once emphasized to a reporter from a party newspaper: whether the party's policies are correct must be tested in the practice of the masses. the central government is always ready to test its own policies. therefore, journalists are encouraged to investigate and follow the materials obtained by the reporters themselves. , opinions, and raise questions [12].
in the digital age, the importance of journalists and communicators being skeptical has only increased. good skepticism is a self-defense mechanism against manipulated information and bad news sources, and is a necessary condition for completing high-quality journalism. in a social media environment, where most public institutions can communicate directly with the public, skepticism becomes even more important for journalism, and journalists need stronger ability to fact-check and put information into context. be inspected. for today's news reporters, being able to dare to doubt, be good at doubting, and guide the audience to make rational doubts is not only a basic skill that needs to be strengthened, but also a professional skill that needs to be strengthened in the future.
good skepticism helps reduce susceptibility to misinformation because it encourages people to question the source and accuracy of information in the media and make better judgments; skeptical cognition is important for the media to shape public opinion through agenda setting ability also plays a guiding role. good skeptics have a spirit of independent thinking and are more aware of political participation; teenagers with a good spirit of skepticism are more rational and confident in distinguishing between honest claims and misleading persuasion.
skeptical cognition has also proven to be important in solving various entrenched problems in digital news consumption. first, it helps people identify high-quality content from an overload of low-quality or false information. secondly, it can prevent people from blindly believing in all kinds of information. some studies have found that skeptical social media users are less susceptible to content such as conspiracy theories and are more likely to behave responsibly online. some experts admitted that the accessibility of information in the digital age has never been greater. the internet allows people to further examine news content from various sources. however, if individual citizens do not have a good spirit of skepticism, the technological advantages brought by the era will be lost.
skeptical cognition is also closely related to the cultivation of media literacy and information literacy in a broader sense. people with higher levels of cognitive needs, media literacy, and information literacy are more likely to be skeptical of information shared on social media. the premise of media literacy is doubt - media literacy supports, requires and promotes the spirit of doubt. the methods and abilities that media literacy gives its audience need to be achieved by instilling skeptical cognition in individuals.
in summary, news audiences with healthy skepticism are more likely to learn the truth through critical thinking and enhanced information seeking. skeptical awareness not only fosters heightened public attention to media and media content, but also allows everyone to examine facts and motives with an open mind. the knowledge and skills emphasized in traditional news literacy training are to make news consumers become more cautious and skeptical people [13].
“doubt is sometimes a kind of progress, which shows that there are more information channels and the degree of social openness has increased; but our problem is that we love to go to extremes and are good at creating the best in the world” [14]. while being skeptical of misinformation on social media is a sign of good digital media literacy, people also need to avoid being irrationally skeptical of information that is factually true.
surveys show that most people in the digital age do not fully understand how the information they receive is algorithmically filtered. rather than accepting information uncritically, they are skeptical of almost all forms of information, including information selected by professional editors and reporters, i.e. the way most people consume news on social media is based on a "general" "sexual doubt", that is, people generally doubt all kinds of information and choices [15]. the danger of general skepticism is that people tend to use skeptical cognition as a "blocker" to block or underestimate information that they are not ready to absorb, thereby isolating themselves from truly beneficial information. the danger of this extreme media skepticism is that people refuse to agree with professional and true reports and refuse to accept a sober reality. unhealthy suspicion may also be used for political purposes through identity projection, such as blaming misinformation on social media on politically opposing groups and deepening divisions about truth and lies [16]. therefore, the cultivation of news literacy should not only improve people’s skepticism towards various information on the media and platforms, but also help everyone’s skepticism become more rational and moderate.
so, what kind of skepticism is appropriate? many experts and scholars have given their own suggestions. some scholars advocate the view of "organized skepticism" proposed by sociologist robert merton in 1942, which is characterized by "detached examination of beliefs based on empirical and logical standards" [17]. some scholars have proposed the concept of "informed skepticism", believing that this is a "sensible" tendency to doubt, which will prompt people to realize that any information or reasons are limited by the narrator's own views or motives, thereby triggering doubts about belief. reflection and consideration [18]. however, these concepts and opinions may be broad and not specific; or they may not be specific to the field of journalism.
this article draws on the views of scholars such as li jianing and rosenstiel, and uses "accuracy doubt" to summarize the way and degree of doubt that both news recipients and receivers should have in the digital age. as mentioned at the beginning, accuracy doubt is a doubt motivated by verifying the accuracy of facts or information; it is based on the fear that misinformation on social media will affect the correctness of one's own cognition and decision-making; a doubt motivated by verifying accuracy motivated skeptics will tend to look for more information for cross-verification, which will further promote a virtuous cycle of knowledge and information acquisition. the positive results brought by accuracy doubt to both parties include: a clear understanding of their own limitations, which is conducive to weakening social differences [19].
the opposite of accuracy doubt is identity doubt, which uses personal identity as the basic driving force of doubt. the core examination is the relationship between misinformation on social media and competing ideologies and political pros and cons. when news recipients are skeptical of various information on social media mainly for identity reasons, it may lead them to avoid getting news from social media, which will lead to less political learning, more closed-mindedness, and deeper political differences [20].
in the digital age, it is not enough to advocate skepticism. accuracy skepticism, as a benign, beneficial, moderate, and professional skeptical cognition, is crucial to becoming a responsible media person and an informed citizen. it can be called the core competencies of both parties involved in news delivery in the digital age.
3. ways to cultivate accuracy doubt cognition
for news reporters, in order to achieve accuracy and doubt, they must first adhere to the good tradition of objective reporting that has been formed for a long time in the journalism industry - such as conceptual neutrality, equality, and detachment, and operational verification, balance, facts and opinions. separation, etc., these skills and principles are naturally consistent with accuracy doubt motivated by verifying facts and information accuracy, and are also called "active skepticism industry skills" [21]. many experts and academics have offered specific suggestions on how to conduct journalism in the digital age from a perspective of accuracy skepticism: grayson reminds citizen journalists to pay special attention to distinguishing between evidence and inference, fact and opinion, assertion and information, fact and information on social media. public relations, journalists and others who disseminate information, journalism and other types of writing [22]; reich and godler, with the support of the israel democracy institute, designed four categories: information, sources, research data, and reporting methods. a series of questions developed from aspects to help journalists think with accurate skepticism and improve reporting [23].
in fields such as data journalism and fact-checking, experts, media, institutions, etc. also provide various verification procedures that include factors that doubt the accuracy. kraus provides a “biographical template” needed when working with datasets from a digital equity perspective – with a core focus on where the data comes from, who collected it, how it was compiled and why it was collected [24]. colson used detailed and specific chart cases to tell everyone how to avoid statistical deception in the digital age [25]. regarding fact-checking, there are currently a series of models to ensure that journalists correctly question various information: from bradshaw’s “content, context, code – online information verification framework” to bell’s “social media news gathering and verification workflow map,” from the nonprofit first draft’s “video and image checklist” to national public radio’s “fact-checking triage board,” and more. in addition, scholars also emphasized that: on social media, platforms should disclose to users the basic methods of algorithmic filtering of content; transmitters in authoritative positions are obliged to cultivate the habit of accuracy doubt among their respective user groups; for smart developers, trustworthy data sources and the ability to quickly check data accuracy are crucial. news reporters need to rely on accurate suspicion and simple curiosity to ask uncomfortable questions, and ultimately go from "don't know" to "know".
in the face of information overload and false information, questioning the accuracy of the reality reflected by the information should become a basic literacy and even a responsibility of the public. in their book "the truth: how to know what to believe in the age of information overload," kovacs and rosenstiel provide the public with a six-step method for "accuracy doubt": 1. what news do i encounter? content? 2. is the information i got complete? if not, what is missing? 3. who/what is the source and why should i believe them? 4. what evidence was provided and how was it tested or verified? 5. what are other possible explanations or understandings? 6. do i need to know this information? the authors acknowledge that these principles are derived from the experience of journalists and editors, and repeatedly remind people to maintain restrained humility and an open mind, never over-extrapolate or adhere to stereotypes, and always think about whether there are other possibilities. explain.
the news literacy project in the united states recommends that people can develop "accuracy" in an artificial intelligence environment in seven steps and from three aspects: "user-generated content", "non-common institutions" and "source verification". doubt” [26]. prompt questions covered throughout include: has anyone in the comments on the news provided evidence that this claim is false or true? has any quality news outlet or fact-checking agency reported on this? can you confirm that the source of the news is not a satirical or entertainment website, or is there evidence that it is a state-owned news organization? was there anything about the reporting that struck you as inappropriate? did it use inflammatory language or contain other signs of unfairness? have the details in the news reports been definitively confirmed, or are things still evolving? …
in china, there are also institutions and organizations such as the paper mingcha, tencent true, and digital oxygen laboratory to assist professional and non-professional people in fact-checking. professor li yuelian especially reminded generation z to think about it when watching the news: "what is the purpose?" do you want to support your existing beliefs or understand the truth of the world?” [27] other scholars suggest that information recipients in the digital age need some basic conditions to realize “artificial reality”, the most important of which is accessibility of information sources, which involves issues such as code open source and algorithm disclosure [28].
"accuracy doubt" also requires teachers and parents to improve related education methods, focusing on norms, skills and values based on verifying the accuracy of facts or information, and designing targeted interventions; students should be encouraged to have the courage to pass various channels to correct misinformation and share the results of their findings, and be the defender of journalistic truth [29]. in addition, "concept-oriented communication" with parents or classmates will have a positive impact on adolescents' cognition of accuracy doubts. this kind of communication is based on independent, critical and alternative thinking as the premise of value judgment, and will produce a more open mind. dialogue; in contrast, "socially oriented communication" is based on unconditional obedience to authority and norms.
careful consideration of the principles and methods of accurate and skeptical cognition provided by experts and scholars for the audience is essentially consistent with the requirements for journalists (journalists) - in addition to a questioning and non-credulous attitude, they all emphasize the trustworthiness of the audience. attention to sources, review of evidence, and an open and non-biased personal mindset are all motivated by the need to verify the accuracy of facts and information.
the "hurtt six points" are based on the "professional skepticism scale" developed by the turkish scholar hurtt (also the main component dimension of the scale) [30]. this scale was developed through extensive psychological measurement and has been proven to be flexible. it is widely used in interdisciplinary fields [31]. this article regards the "hurtt six points" as a basic concept that transcends specific techniques and plays a supporting role in doubting accuracy, and can be used for reference by both news transmitters and receivers.
1. ask questions. the word "skeptic" is originally derived from words such as "careful observation," "examination," and "consideration," and these words all point to a key action - asking questions. many scholars regard inquisitiveness and questioning behavior as important features of good skeptical qualities: “the spirit of skepticism in philosophy is to bring things into question”, “inquiry into methods is the core of methodological doubt”, “possessors of a good skeptical spirit often question: what do you mean? why do you believe what you do? this is a manifestation of its pursuit of clear definition and its emphasis on reason, evidence, verification, and discernment."[32] in addition, as an important pillar of accuracy and healthy skepticism, the courage to ask questions and being good at asking questions have also been widely supported by research in many disciplines, including journalism, auditing, law, medicine, etc. therefore, this article uses the spirit of questioning as a tool for news communication. both sides draw doubt on the accuracy of first principles.
2. pause. suspension refers to the suspension of judgment, that is, the suspension of arbitrary judgments or actions before sufficient evidence is obtained. it reminds both parties who receive news to adopt a temporary "shelving" attitude when faced with information that they think is questionable, and should pay special attention to it. control your emotions and don't jump to conclusions. suspension of judgment is also a necessary component of skeptical inquiry in traditional philosophy, “skeptics are not naive enough to accept the first thing they see or think about… they are critical and want to see evidence before they believe it. "[33]. scholars generally agree that one of the essential characteristics of mature skeptics is a suspension of judgment when faced with dogmatic assertions—a willingness to adopt a contemplative stance compared to what people normally do when making and accepting claims. this kind of pause and contemplation may take time, but it is not negative. on the contrary, it represents a desire for clear answers to judgmental topics. it is for this reason that suspension of judgment often also inspires next steps that doubt the accuracy. ——seeking knowledge.
3. seeking knowledge. knowledge seeking is the active search for knowledge. possessors of a good spirit of skepticism tend to "seek knowledge for the sake of knowledge." they will not only search for and verify specific conclusions or information, but also show a high interest in general knowledge. they are prepared to investigate and evaluate all issues related to them. any new arguments relevant to the problem, delve deeper and go beyond the obvious. if the first principle of accuracy doubt, "asking", is based on the psychological feeling of distrust, then "seeking knowledge" is based on a more general psychology of curiosity. research confirms that curiosity can stimulate and promote people's interest and promote exploration and discovery. this also reminds both news recipients to remain curious in journalistic practice.
4. understand. understanding is interpersonal understanding, which can also be seen as the manifestation of empathy and empathy in the field of news communication. only through interpersonal understanding can we recognize and accept different people's different views on the same object or event. individuals' bad motives and perceptions may lead them to provide inaccurate, biased or misleading information; similarly, institutions, media, organizations, etc., like individuals, have their own discourse needs; and in the digital age, various communication entities and have similar or even identical communication conditions; these internal and external factors make interpersonal understanding a concept that is almost as important as source verification - it is necessary to understand and try to verify the information provider (including individuals, institutions, organizations, media, etc.) situation, background, motivation, structure, etc. “unless interpersonal understanding is achieved, it is difficult to identify potential biases in the information people provide, or to detect when people may be intentionally providing misleading information” [34], but once the information provider’s bias is identified and understood, assumptions or motivations, accuracy doubters have the basis to challenge or correct erroneous assumptions.
5. confidence. confidence will not only make people value their own opinions, but also make people feel calm and less susceptible to external chaos. accuracy doubt requires self-confidence, which is extremely necessary for us to ask or answer questions in the news gathering process in the digital era, for us to verify the accuracy of facts or information, and to take further actions to obtain sufficient evidence to eliminate doubts.
6. autonomy. autonomy means that news recipients in the digital age should have the ability to be self-directed and morally independent. people with a good spirit of skepticism should not easily accept other people's claims. in order to verify the accuracy of facts or information, they will conduct additional investigations and evidence collection. accuracy skepticism also requires that we be distrustful and clinging to authority, and that we should be less influenced by the beliefs or persuasive attempts of others.
4. accuracy and doubt about the boundaries of cognition
from the perspective of theoretical independence, it is necessary to define accuracy-doubting cognition and its related or similar concepts; from the perspective of practical effects, it is necessary to limit the scope of application of accuracy-doubting cognition.
although many concepts of accuracy doubt discussed in this article, such as suspending judgment, seeking knowledge, and seeking verification, all draw on or rely on the fine tradition of skepticism, there are still two obvious differences between the two. first of all, skepticism has a long history and a wide scope, from religion to philosophy, from natural science to social psychology, it can be said to be all-encompassing. however, the so-called "accuracy skepticism" in this article only applies to the category of journalism, and emphasizes more on practical guidance. significance. secondly, skepticism is generally based on subjective distrust and disbelief, while accuracy doubt does not allow such a strong innate subjective color, and its purpose is not to resist or reject. this is the category of news literacy to which accuracy doubt belongs. not allowed.
figure 1 schematic diagram of the relationship categories of relevant concepts in this article
although critical thinking is also considered to be an essential ability for people to live in a society based on the production and dissemination of information, it has a wider range of application than skeptical cognition, and the application process is more complex. cognition is often just "a link" in the thinking process. “critical thinkers will study texts through skeptical cognition and solve problems wisely while giving reasonable reasons.” interpretation, analysis, evaluation, reasoning, etc.) are naturally connected” [35]. in addition, critical thinking also emphasizes the role of introspection, but accuracy doubt does not emphasize this.
the spirit or method of accuracy skepticism advocated by this research is only applicable to the field of contemporary news communication, and cannot be applied arbitrarily to social activities such as partnerships, interactions with relatives and friends, and interactions between superiors and subordinates. the scientific boundaries of accuracy doubt must be clear, otherwise it may cause extremely adverse consequences, because the premise of social activities such as interpersonal communication is subjective factors such as emotion and trust, while news is objective.
[this article is a phased result of the annual project of the private higher education professional committee of the guangdong higher education association "research on the integration of red culture into the campus culture construction of private universities in the omni-media era" (no. 2022mbgj074), and the guangzhou key research base for humanities and social sciences "guangzhou live tv" one of the results of the "business research institute" series]
references:
reference format for citation in this article:
chang lixuan, nie jinghong. accuracy doubt cognition: the core competencies of both news transmitters and receivers in the digital era [j]. young journalists, 2024(09):22-27.
