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china and brazil, one has a long history of unity, and the other became an independent country in the 19th century. although the two countries are far apart, after the formation of the modern international relations system, as exchanges between countries gradually increased, the two countries established diplomatic relations in the 1880s, that is, during the late qing dynasty in china.

brazil's plan to recruit chinese workers in the late qing dynasty

as early as the beginning of the 19th century, china and brazil had economic and cultural exchanges. according to the brazilian national archives and national library, between 1814 and 1825, about 300 chinese tea growers went to brazil to teach tea-growing techniques. they lived on the shores of lake rodrigo de freita in today's tijuca forest park in rio de janeiro. these tea growers became the earliest chinese immigrants. in the late 19th century, in order to develop its plantation economy, brazil tried to import a large number of cheap labor from china. for this reason, the qing government conducted long-term negotiations with brazil, which was an important episode in the history of relations between the two countries.

after the 1830s, countries around the world began to ban the slave trade, and brazil lost an important source of labor. then in the 1960s and 1970s, brazil participated in the war against paraguay, which aggravated the labor shortage crisis in brazil. therefore, brazil gradually turned its attention to china and introduced slaves through various means and channels.chinese workersnearly 10,000. after the 1870s, brazil sent envoys to china twice in a row. china and brazil conducted in-depth discussions and negotiations on the issue of recruiting workers, and made substantial progress. however, due to the impact of emergencies in both countries, the recruitment was eventually forced to stop.

the first china-pakistan negotiation wasfirst official contact between nations, which opened a new chapter in the diplomatic relations between china and brazil. in the fifth year of the guangxu period (1879), the prime minister of brazil sent eduardo callado to china, whose purpose was still to recruit chinese workers. the prime minister's yamen and li hongzhang, who had already signed the "renewal of the recruitment regulations", "cuban chinese workers clauses", "sino-peruvian trade treaty" and "conference on cuban chinese workers clauses", were very wary of this and refused brazil's recruitment of chinese workers. seeing that he was unable to reverse the status quo, callado finally signed a trade treaty with china, namely the sino-brazil "treaty of peace and commerce".the two countries formally established diplomatic relations。

in the 18th year of the reign of emperor guangxu (1892), the situation had changed fundamentally. due to the passage of the chinese exclusion act by the united states, the situation of chinese overseas immigrants became increasingly difficult. in addition, guangdong and other places were crowded with people and had a hard life. therefore, some officials proposed to allowchinese immigrants to brazilon october 10, 1892, zheng zaoru, the former chinese ambassador to the united states, submitted a proposal to li hongzhang, the minister of beiyang, requesting the qing government to take the initiative to send envoys to brazil to negotiate a method of recruiting workers so that guangdong could immigrate tens of thousands of people to brazil every year.

at this time, brazil's economy was dominated by plantations, and its coffee production exceeded half of the world's total at the time.urgent need for laboragainst this backdrop, the brazilian government decided to send an envoy to china to negotiate the recruitment of workers. on the fifth day of the ninth month of the eighteenth year of the reign of emperor guangxu (october 25, 1892), gabriel de toledo piza e almeida, the brazilian ambassador to france, sent a note to the qing ambassador to france.xue fucheng, saying that he had received a telegram from the ministry of foreign affairs of his country, saying that the president of brazil "deeply wishes to set up an embassy in beijing and send an envoy to stay there to show his sincerity and promote friendship." (sent on september 23, the 18th year of the guangxu period, "the complete works of li hongzhang·electrical draft ii", page 502.) xue fucheng therefore sent two telegrams to li hongzhang and forwarded them to the zongli yamen to ask for instructions. after discussing with the zongli yamen, li hongzhang replied on november 12 that xue fucheng should first inquire in detail about the other party's intentions and respond carefully to the recruitment. after several days of negotiations and probing, the qing government's attitude softened. on november 18, 1892, qing dynasty counselor in paris qing chang held talks with brazilian minister to france bisa, and the discussions between the two sides immediately turned to the recruitment of workers. around july of the 19th year of the guangxu period (1893), "street advertisements" were posted in hong kong, macau and other places, claiming that an agreement had been reached with the qing dynasty to allow brazil to recruit workers.

however, the progress was not as smooth as expected. a series of unexpected events cast a shadow on the negotiation of the recruitment agreement between china and pakistan. in october of the 19th year of the reign of emperor guangxu (1893), the inspector general of customs robert hart suddenly sent a letter to the general administration, which caused the negotiation of the recruitment agreement between china and pakistan to be suspended. hart said:

"i have heard that there is a ship carrying more than 400 chinese workers to brazil near macau. the gongbei customs office can only manage the trade of chinese ships, but has no regulations on the transportation of foreign ships." (chen hansheng. collection of historical materials on chinese workers going abroad, volume 1, "letter from the general commissioner of customs, robert hart, to the general administration of customs on the peaceful palestine and the need for china to set rules to forbid the chinese to go there")

hart believed that the ship's carrying of chinese workers was against regulations, and therefore prohibited chinese workers from going overseas.

in addition, two naval rebellions broke out in brazil during this period, which dealt another blow to the negotiation between the two sides. china was also not at peace. in july 1894, the sino-japanese war broke out between china and japan, and the qing dynasty was exhausted. the successive "emergencies" delayed the signing of the recruitment regulations between china and brazil.

due to the above factors, only a few chinese entered brazil from macau or other places in the early 20th century. but it is undeniable that the early chinese workers in brazil made great contributions to various aspects of brazilian social life. in the past 100 years, tens of thousands of chinese workers have worked hard to grow tea on the vast land of brazil, constantly fighting against high mountains and bad waters, building railways, roads, mining, repairing ships in naval shipyards, doing business in cities, opening restaurants and fireworks workshops. they not only brought the long-standing tea art technology and excellent traditional chinese culture to brazil, but also promoted the exchange and integration of the two countries' cultures.

brazil breaks the deadlock

after the abdication of the qing emperor, the republic of china was faced with a serious problem while mediating disputes among various parties: how to gain recognition from the world? since the late qing dynasty, the influence of the great powers in china has influenced the political situation. the republic of china can only fight for its rights if it is recognized by the international community. however, due to the rapid changes in the political arena in the early republic of china, all countries chose to wait and see, and the issue of international recognition was delayed for more than a year.

at the beginning of the establishment of the republic of china, there were concerns about the attitude of the great powers. wu tingfang, who had rich diplomatic experience, said: "it is up to me to establish it, but it is up to others to recognize it." without a unified government, the great powers can only wait and see. the mexican revolution, which broke out almost at the same time as the revolution of 1911, is a typical example. the great powers also had their own thoughts on china: american minister to china, john gallagher, advocated rapid recognition to help china restore stability; the rest of the countries were more concerned about taking advantage of the situation, japan and russia negotiated for manchuria and montenegro, and britain was concerned about the interests of tibet. in order to avoid disputes, the countries advocated "coordination" and discussed china policies together.

the republic of china sensed the clues and decided to focus on the united states, which had the most say. chinese chambers of commerce in various cities in the united states organized speeches and lobbied politicians. wu tingfang, who was quite influential in america, also wrote articles for major newspapers to promote china's new atmosphere. with the efforts of all parties, the united states gradually took on the responsibility of coordinating various countries, but due to the complex interests of britain, japan, russia and other countries, international recognition progressed slowly. in 1913, the republic of china planned to convene congress on april 8. the united states wanted to take this opportunity to urge various countries to formally recognize it, so it notified various countries on april 2:

"the president has instructed me to inform you, and through you, your government, that he intends to recognize the new chinese government when the chinese congress opens on april 8. the president earnestly hopes and urges your government to cooperate and take the same action at the same time."

unexpectedly, britain, japan, russia and other countries reacted coldly and did not reply in time. the united states had already prepared a formal letter of recognition, but secretary of state blair had to wait and see.

when china and the united states were at a loss, brazil unexpectedly broke the deadlock and announced its recognition of the republic of china. foreign minister lu zhengxiang sent a telegram to the brazilian foreign minister, full of emotion:

"yesterday, i received a call from our country's representative in japan, saying that the brazilian chargé d'affaires personally brought an official document stating that the brazilian government now recognizes the republic of china, which is sufficient to prove your country's kindness. from now on, the diplomatic relations between china and brazil will be increasingly harmonious. i would like to ask your envoy to convey my government's gratitude to your president."

yuan shikai was also excited and replied in a telegram: "your country's move is not only a preferential treatment, but also the first initiative. my country is deeply grateful for it." in addition, the ministry of education also telegraphed to public schools across the country: "brazil was the first to recognize the republic of china on april 8. all schools across the country will be closed for one day on april 12, and flags will be hung to show respect for friendship and gratitude. this is hereby announced."

following brazil, peru also announced its recognition of the republic of china the next day. the move by brazil and peru objectively relieved the pressure from the united states. on may 2, the united states officially recognized the republic of china, followed by cuba and mexico.

history of the establishment of diplomatic relations between china and pakistan

although the number of chinese immigrants to brazil was small until the beginning of the 20th century and their economic and cultural impact was not significant, since the 1950s, chinese from all over the world have continued to immigrate to brazil, becoming an immigrant group with increasing influence.

in the early 1970s, with the easing of relations between the east and the west, especially the thawing of sino-us relations, many latin american countries gradually got rid of the shackles of the "ideological frontier" and recognized the diversity of ideologies. at the same time, with the restoration of the legitimate seat of the people's republic of china in the united nations, china's international status and reputation have been unprecedentedly improved.

in order to realize brazil's ambition to become a great power, geisel took office as president of brazil on march 15, 1974. he made major adjustments to the foreign policy of the military government that began in 1964, changing the diplomatic strategy of "alliance with the united states" promoted by previous military governments, abandoning diplomatic propositions such as "ideological frontiers" and implementing a diversified diplomatic strategy of "responsible pragmatism". on august 15, brazil announced the establishment of diplomatic relations with china, making it the first country in south america to establish diplomatic relations with the people's republic of china.

over the past half century, in the face of changing international situations, china and brazil have always adhered to the principles of mutual respect, equality, and win-win cooperation, and the relationship between the two countries has always maintained stable development. the change in the brazilian government's diplomatic thinking has promoted brazil's relations with "third world" countries, and strengthening relations with socialist countries has become one of the most important characteristics of brazilian diplomacy during this period.

in 1984, figueiredo became the first brazilian president to visit china. after brazil restored democracy in 1985, in order to enhance the autonomy of brazilian diplomacy, the sarney government, the first civilian government after brazil's re-democratization, worked hard to expand diplomatic space, among which accelerating the development of china-brazil relations became an important diplomatic choice of the brazilian government at that time. sarney visited china in 1988. during this historic meeting between sarney and deng xiaoping, both sides proposed that the 21st century would be the "pacific century" and the "latin american century". this far-sighted consensus has put china-brazil relations on a fast track of development.

after 20 years of development, the mutual trust between the governments of china and brazil has been continuously strengthened, and the status of each country in the other's diplomatic strategy has also been greatly improved. in 1993, china and brazil established a "strategic partnership" and opened a new era of bilateral relations. the strategic partnership not only reflects the current status of the development of china-brazil relations, but also points out the direction of the future development of bilateral relations. since then, the relationship between the two countries has entered a stage of continuous deepening and improvement: in 2004, the heads of state of the two countries realized mutual communication; in 2006, the first meeting of the china-brazil high-level coordination and cooperation committee was held; in 2007, the strategic dialogue was launched; in 2008, the heads of state of the two countries held three meetings...

2024 marks the 50th anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relations between china and brazil. on august 15, chinese president xi jinping and brazilian president lula exchanged congratulatory messages, reflecting the high importance the two countries attach to bilateral relations. as two major developing countries in the eastern and western hemispheres, and also important emerging market countries, how china and brazil plan their future cooperation has long gone beyond the bilateral scope. as president xi jinping said in his congratulatory message, over the past half century since the establishment of diplomatic relations, no matter how the international situation changes, the relationship between the two countries has always maintained stable development, and its overall, strategic and global influence has become increasingly prominent. while promoting the development and revitalization of their respective countries, it has also played an important role in world peace, stability and prosperity.

the world today is facing a once-in-a-century change, and the "global south" is rising collectively. in this era, china-pakistan relations go far beyond the bilateral scope, and their overall, strategic and global impacts are becoming increasingly prominent. while promoting the development and revitalization of their respective countries, they also play an important role in world peace, stability and prosperity. the two sides have strengthened strategic cooperation on global issues of common concern within multilateral frameworks such as the united nations, brics and the g20, enhanced the voice and representation of developing countries, and defended the common interests of emerging markets and developing countries. the two sides recently jointly issued a six-point consensus on the political settlement of the ukrainian issue, which has been understood and recognized by more and more countries.

references:

【1】chen weihua, zhao yan. working together to build the next “golden fifty years” of china-brazil relations[n]. xinhua daily telegraph, 2024-08-16(008).

【2】mao haijian. a preliminary study on brazil's recruitment of chinese workers and kang youwei's immigration plan to brazil[j]. shilin, 2007, (05): 1-18+190.

【3】wang shihao. the process of establishing diplomatic relations between china and brazil in the late qing dynasty[j]. international sinology, 2018, (04): 129-137+203.

【4】zhang qiang. study on the negotiation of chinese workers in china and pakistan in the 19th century[d]. changchun normal university, 2023.

【5】china-pakistan relations show broad prospects for "south-south cooperation"[n]. global times, 2024-08-16(014).

【6】zhou zhiwei. sino-brazil relations: historical review and outlook - commemorating the 35th anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relations between china and brazil[j]. contemporary world, 2009, (08): 55-57.